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In what appears to be a paradox, journalists lie or deceive to get at the truth. Truthtelling, a universal value and a core journalistic value, is a theme underlying many ethical issues in journalism. Borrowing from Elliot and Culver's (1992) definition of journalistic deception that covers not only newsgathering but also the omission-commission distinction, this dissertation explores how American journalists assess various forms of deception such as impersonation, non-identification, hidden cameras, fabrication, photo manipulation, quote tampering, staging, withholding information, and lying to newsmakers. Of interest are journalists' ethical assessment of deception, factors influencing their judgment, the motives, and justifications. Theoretically, this study is grounded in normative theories of media performance--codes of conduct, professional values, and social responsibility theory, theories of moral development, the ethical theories of Kant and Mill, and gatekeeping. In a Web survey with 740 members of Investigative Reporters and Editors (IRE) and depth interviews with 20 journalists, journalistic deception is found to be a continuum, consistent with utilitarian reasoning. Some acts, for example non-identification and hidden cameras, are more acceptable than fabrication and impersonation. Deception is evaluated in a moral-pragmatic framework based on harm-benefit, the altruism of the act, and the instrumental utility of deception including issues of convenience, the bottom line, and personal safety. The journalists carefully distinguish between deceptive acts aimed at news audiences and those targeting news sources, considering the latter to be less deserving of the truth. There is greater tolerance of deception aimed at wrongdoers, supporting Bok's (1978, 1989) notion of lying to liars. Deception by commission is also considered to be more egregious than deception by omission. A regression analysis reveals the newsroom, rather than personal-level variables, is the most important force shaping evaluation of deception. The salience of competition and medium demonstrates ethical decision-making is a function of occupational pressures as journalists negotiate the tensions between morality and professional demands. With its distinctive set of tacit rules and subtleties, journalistic deception is an occupational construct. It is contextually forged by a complex interplay of values and norms central to journalism as well as organizational pressures and the contours of a broader moral framework.
